Exercise reversed the increase in TERT expression induced by stanozolol, particularly in the parenchyma, where metabolic zonation is reported: Glucose release from glycogen and via gluconeogenesis, amino acid utilization and ammonia detoxification, protective metabolism, bile formation and the synthesis of certain plasma proteins, such as albumin and fibrinogen occur mainly in the periportal area, whereas glucose utilization, xenobiotic metabolism and the formation of other plasma proteins, such as alpha 1-antitrypsin or alpha-fetoprotein occur predominantly in the perivenous zone 49 , Several studies have indicated that physical exercise increases telomerase activity in different cell types 52 , Our results indicated the elevation of telomerase activity and TERT expression in the liver tissue, which could be associated either with an increased proliferation risk due to stanozolol treatment 10 , rather unlikely for such a short exposure period, or may represent a counteracting mechanism Exercise reverses the stanozolol-induced increase in telomerase activity.
A number of studies have supported that exercise exerts hepatoprotective effects. Huang et al demonstrated that a week swimming exercise program suppressed senescence markers and downregulated inflammatory mediators in the liver tissues of D-galactose-induced senescence in rats Yi et al demonstrated that both acute and chronic exercise exerted preventive effects on the livers of rats with type 2 diabetes On the other hand, exercise has been reported to increase liver enzymes in humans 57 and concerns exist regarding the effects of exercise on portal hypertension in patients with cirrhosis In conclusion, stanozolol induces telomerase activity at a molecular level and exercise reverses this induction, at least regarding TERT expression.
This may reflect premature tissue aging due to decreased telomerase activity Future studies are warranted in order to investigate the mechanisms through which exercise can be used to prevent the adverse health effects of stanazolol and to elucidate the molecular hepatocellular mechanisms of the stanozolol-induced adverse effects.
The authors would like to thank Dr Alegakis Athanasios for his valuable help on the statistical advice and comments. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. DAS is the Editor-in-Chief of the journal, but had no personal involvement in the reviewing process, or any influence in terms of adjudicating on the final decision, for this article. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.
Int J Mol Med. Published online Apr Tzatzarakis , 3 Christina Tsitsimpikou , 4 Polychronis D. Stivaktakis , 3 Dimitrios Tsoukalas , 3 Demetrios A. Spandidos , 5 Aristides M. Tsatsakis , 3 and Buket Alpertunga 1. Manolis N. Polychronis D. Demetrios A. Aristides M. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Professor Aristides M.
Box , Heraklion, Greece, E-mail: moc. Received Feb 28; Accepted Apr This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License , which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Anabolic agents are doping substances which are commonly used in sports. Introduction Stanozolol is a performance-enhancing anabolic androgenic steroid AAS. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Figure 2. Table I Weight of the rats upon purchase. Table II Experimental design of the study. Groups No. Bioaccumulation of stanozolol and its metabolites in liver tissues The results are summarized in Table IV.
Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Discussion Stanozolol is a widely abused and most potent AAS responsible for a number of side-effects, including cardiovascular, reproductive, behavioral effects and hepatotoxicity Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Dr Alegakis Athanasios for his valuable help on the statistical advice and comments. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests DAS is the Editor-in-Chief of the journal, but had no personal involvement in the reviewing process, or any influence in terms of adjudicating on the final decision, for this article.
References 1. Detection of stanozolol O- and N-sulfate metabolites and their evaluation as additional markers in doping control. Drug Test Anal. Nephrotoxicity in rabbits after long-term nandrolone decanoate administration. Toxicol Lett. World Anti-doping Agency The list of prohibited substances and methods. Accessed Feb 14, Synthetic and natural nutritional supplements: Health 'allies' or risks to public health.
The use of nutritional supplements among recreational athletes in Athens, Greece. The global epidemiology of anabolic-androgenic steroid use: A meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Ann Epidemiol. Stanozolol-induced bland cholestasis. Gastroenterol Hepatol. Effects of short-term stanozolol administration on serum lipoproteins in hepatic lipase deficiency. Racial differences in the progression to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in HCV-infected veterans.
Am J Gastroenterol. Fatal liver cyst rupture due to anabolic steroid use: A case presentation. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. Hepatotoxicity of stanozolol in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. Hepatocellular adenomas associated with anabolic androgenic steroid abuse in bodybuilders: A report of two cases and a review of the literature.
Br J Sports Med. J Clin Gastroenterol. Chem Cent J. Kicman AT. Pharmacology of anabolic steroids. Br J Pharmacol. Side effects of anabolic androgenic steroids: Pathological findings and structure-activity relationships. Handb Exp Pharmacol. Connection between telomerase activity in PBMC and markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in patients with metabolic syndrome.
PLoS One. Telomerase: The devil inside. Additionally, drinking is part of the culture of many sports. After a game or competition, athletes get together and head out to a local bar for some drinks.
And given that anabolic steroid use is generally hidden, the user may not feel as though they can bow out without revealing their secret.
Among other effects of anabolic steroids , there is something called estrogen rebound. This condition is the plummeting mood AAS users experience when the drugs wear off between doses, creating a depressive state. Many believe that this chemically induced depression is a major motivator amongst users to mix steroids and alcohol. However, because alcohol can increase estrogen in the body, it tends just to make the low mood worse, creating a dangerous cycle of use.
Drinking on most medications has the potential to cause negative side effects in the user. This is true for drinking while on steroids as well. However, the risks are not considered to be as great as with many other medicines. Most doctors who prescribe AAS drugs acknowledge that drinking in moderation while on the medication is okay. The concern arises when one or both substances are being abused. For example, someone who takes anabolic steroid injections twice as often as they will have an increased risk of dangerous mental and physical side effects when drinking.
Moderation is key when it comes to steroids and alcohol. Understandably, people taking AAS drugs may not wish to abstain from alcohol while using them. Drinking is often a part of socializing, and pairing the right drink with a meal can greatly enhance it. However, once users understand the risks, they may wish to cut back their imbibing or stop it completely. Mixing AAS drugs and alcohol can cause a wide variety of problems, including :. Due to the steroid mechanism of action , the development of these side effects can be unpredictable.
It is important that users understand them in full before they take on the risk of drinking while on steroids. In case, abuse of any of both substances becomes an addiction, it is critical to seek proper treatment. Both alcohol and anabolic steroids are hepatotoxic. This means that they have the ability to damage the liver cells when the organ is processing the substances. Using them at the same time means putting extra strain on the liver, increasing the risk of damage.
Some AAS medications are more hepatotoxic than others, so users should research their AAS medication of choice before drinking. No matter what AAS drug a person is on, having more than a few drinks a week will greatly increase the risk of damage. Intramuscular or subcutaneous injections are available for use.
Oral administration or pellet implantation beneath the skin are also methods by which the drug can be administered. People with skin conditions use topical applications to the skin, for example, gels or patches. Unfortunately, these administration methods also make it easy for steroid overdose to occur. Injecting and orally ingesting the drug are most the most common routes of administration taken by steroid abusers.
Steroid abusers will overdose up to times more than the recommended dose of anabolic steroids and this is called Steroid Overdose. A practice called stacking involves taking two doses of different kinds of anabolic steroids to achieve an accelerated effect. These cycles can last anywhere from six to twelve weeks. The Doses of anabolic steroids administered usually depend on the specific target of the steroid overdose.
Athletes, for example, be it middle or high school, college, professional, and Olympic would rather take steroids for a limited period, usually during sporting seasons, to perform exceptionally while other abusers such as bodybuilders, law enforcement officers, fitness buffs, and bodyguards would take steroids for extended periods to remain a particular size or get bigger.
Coupled with steroid overdose, steroids can remain in bodily tissue from 10 days to about 12 months. Get immediate professional help if you experience these symptoms if you abuse steroids because they will not go away on their own and will advance to more permanent damage. We continue to re-iterate that steroids are not to be used unless with the prescription of a licensed medical professional to prevent cases of steroid overdose. Self-esteem issues are usually the underlying factors that lead individuals to steroid overdose.
Athletes and even actors purchase steroids illegally to build muscle mass in short periods. It is also important to note that only a fraction of the more than different types of anabolic steroids is approved for medical use. There are many unpleasant side effects and health risks that will arise from prolonged and excessive steroid overdose. For instance, prolonged use of steroids will increase blood cholesterol levels as steroids in their very nature belong to the same chemical group.
Acne and high blood pressure are also very common side effects of excessive intake of anabolic steroids. The most concerning, however, is liver in the case of orally administered steroids and heart damage. More often than not, athletes who use steroids combine them with other drugs, resulting in even more damaging outcomes.
The heart is particularly affected in several ways by steroid overdose. Myocardial infarction, which leads to heart failure, is at the forefront of this. The brain is also compromised by chronic steroid overdose. Hormonal imbalances that arise from steroid abuse lead to impaired cognitive function and memory loss, attention disorders, inability to focus, and in exceptionally severe cases, resulting in mental illnesses such as depression, which lead to suicidal behavior.
In the event of a possible steroid overdose incident, please endeavor to contact and a poison control center immediately.
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